VISIONS OF THE SOUL IN COLOURS

SCREAM : EDWARD MUNCH'S MOST FAMOUS & ICONIC PAINTING

SELF PORTRAIT OF EDWARD MUNCH

Visions of the soul in colours
Go through the creations of Norwegian artist Edvard Munch and you find an underlying feel of anxiety, uncertainty and melancholy, says Sujit Chowdhury

Every age gets reflected in an artistic icon. Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa shows the perfection and serenity of Renaissance period while Van Gogh’s Sunflowers’portrays the inner turbulence and transience of human life. Similarly, Edvard Munch’s Scream epitomizes the existential angst of modern times. In this painting, we see a horrified person with a twisted fatal face with holes in place of eyes and mouth. He is closing his ears against the scream of nature in a backdrop of blood-red skyline. Munch wrote about this painting: “I was walking along a path …the sun was setting—suddenly the sky turned blood red—I paused, feeling exhausted, and leaned on the fence—there was blood and tongues of fire above the blue-black fjord and the city…I stood there trembling with anxiety– and I sensed an infinite scream passing through nature.” Existential PredicamentsEdvard Munch (1863-1944), the celebrated Norwegian artist, established the Expressionist movement in modern art. He was a prolific painter and printmaker. His ouevre shows his existential predicaments and his aesthetic quest to deal with the complex issues of birth, growth, love, decay and death. In his entire work, we find an underlying feel of anxiety, uncertainty and melancholy. He has seen his mother dying when he was only five and later his elder sister and younger brother died while one sister was sent to a mental asylum. Munch too had a fragile health and a weak mental disposition as he said on his 70th birthday, “Illness and insanity and death were the black angels that stood at my cradle”. The fear of death haunted him throughout his life as he wrote, “when I cast off on the voyage of my life, I felt like a ship made from old rotten material sent out into a stormy sea by its maker with the words: If you are wrecked it is your own fault and then you will be burnt in the eternal fires of Hell”. But, the sense of uncertainty of life fuelled his creativity as he said, “without anxiety and illness, I am a ship without a rudder…my sufferings are part of my self and my art. They are indistinguishable from me and their destruction would destroy my art.” Intellectual companionAfter an informal education at home, he joined Royal School of Design at Kristiania (now Oslo) but left it to study painting. He was associated with the Bohemian circle of intellectuals and was exposed to the emerging movements in literature, music and theatre. In the beginning, Munch started painting in the naturalist style but soon he shifted to simplified forms and vibrant colours to evoke intense feelings in a symbolic manner. He was influenced by Gauguin’s primitive symbolism but Gauguin had to travel to Tahiti to get inspired whereas Munch “carried his own Tahiti inside himself” as one critic hailed his work. He travelled extensively and divided his time between Berlin and Paris that brought him closer to August Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen and also helped him to evolve his own distinguished style after progressing through impressionist, post-impressionist, Fauvist and symbolist styles. His was a narcissist art born out of personal experiences and existential truthfulness.BreakthroughDuring this period, Munch also started etching, lithography and photography. Munch achieved a breakthrough with his first solo exhibition in Berlin in 1892 which was labelled as ‘objectionable art’ by the authorities and was closed down. With this, Munch became famous overnight. Critics found his paintings as “pictures of Ibsensque mood arousing curiosity both on a social and psychological level.” In fact, 1890s was the most productive phase in Munch’s career. His paintings expressed varied aspects of human existence in modern times as felt and internalised by Munch himself. Munch exhibited these paintings in 1902 in Berlin as a series called Frieze of Life. This series had 22 paintings that inluded well known works like Despair, Melancholy, Jealousy, Anxiety, Death, Madonna, Summer Night’s Dream, Self Portrait with Cigarette, Death in the Sickroom’ and The Scream. Through these paintings Munch established a set of motifs, images and symbols to express the most subtle visions of the soul; something unseen in art history before. Personal crisisThough Munch had become a sought after painter in Europe, he was undergoing a severe crisis in his personal life. Coupled with his fragile health, he started having bouts of depression particularly after the death of his father in 1889 and two failed relationships that left him remorseful. He stated drinking heavily and had become more of a split-personality as he recounted, “the influence of alcohol brought the schism of the mind or the soul to its extreme…like two birds in a single cage…under the violent schism of these two mental states arose an increasingly stronger inner tension – a conflict – a fearful battle in the cage of the soul.” In 1908, Munch had a nervous breakdown and after eight months of treatment in Copenhagen, he returned to Norway. By this time Norway had got its independence. Munch was received in his home country as a national artist. He got several commissioned work especially decorative murals. Munch settled down in Ekely, an estate on the outskirts of Oslo. His ‘children’Now, Munch turned outwards as mostly he painted landscapes and countrylife. He also revisited some of the earlier themes from Frieze of Life. He spent a reclusive life without any companion. He called his paintings his children. When he died at the age of 80, 1008 paintings, 4443 drawings, 15,391 prints besides an equally huge number of woodcuts, etchings, lithographs and photographs were found in his house which he had bequeathed to the Oslo Municipality. What sets Munch apart from other artists of all times is the ‘inward gaze’ that gave rise to the Expressionist movement. Munch penetrates through the human soul; its outwardly invisible forms and discovers the spiritual aura of ‘self’. He gives voice to the unspoken fears and aspirations of the modern man, and above all, his struggle against the outside forces. Munch’s creativity was not inspired by an ‘impression from outside rather it was truly an ‘expression from inside’.

Article published in Deccan Herald (Bangalore) Sunday Magazine

MOSAIC OF MUMBAI

Mosaic of Mumbai
The skyline of Mumbai that you see today evolved over a long period of time. Sujit Chowdhury traces the architectural history of the metropolis and the makeover it has gone through.
Mumbai has been a city of dreams since the time it opened its shores to welcome native and foreign traders. It is indeed a ‘melting pot’ of diverse cultures and the confluence of socio-economic and political trends over centuries have shaped its modern metropolitan character. Mumbai’s architectural heritage bears testimony to these historical changes.The seven islands of Mumbai were gifted to Britain by Portugal when Charles II married Catherine, the Portuguese princess in 1661. The Portuguese rulers had built forts in these islands for trading. Remnants of these forts can be seen even today at Sion, Mahim, Bandra (Castella De Aguada) and Versova. Since Kolkata was the administrative and trading hub of the East India Company, Mumbai did not have imposing buildings in 17th and 18th centuries. Mumbai buildings were constructed in native style for purely utilitarian purposes. Gradually, with increasing political and commercial activities and the imperial perception of building as a visual symbol of power, the building started to be constructed in Victorian Gothic style. Some of these buildings are St Thomas Church (1672-1718), the Mint (1829), Crawford Market (1869) and Town Hall (1804). South-side sagaBy mid-19th century, land at the southern tip (today’s Colaba) was reclaimed, causeways to the mainland were built and a rail section was opened to Thane. These developments were fuelled by the growing demand of Indian cotton in Britain due to the American Civil War. Increasing trade through Mumbai Port created an affluent mercantile class largely from Parsee and Gujarati communities.

After 1860, Mumbai was poised to emerge as a major urban centre when Henry Bartle Edward Frere became the Governor in 1862. Frere had a dream of transforming Mumbai into Urbs Prima in Indis i.e, India’s first city. He was instrumental in constructing St John’s Church in 1847 to commemorate the dead soldiers in the First Afghan War of 1838. Construction of Afghan Church was a turning point in the architectural history of Mumbai as it heralded the emergence of Neo-Gothic style suited to Indian climate and functionality. It was a Gothic style unique to Mumbai. Though the buildings were designed by British architects, locally available materials especially stones were used to minimize cost and to suit Mumbai’s humid climate and torrential monsoons. The expertise of Indian masons and craftsmen in elaborate decorative elements added a new dimension to this Gothic revival in Mumbai. ‘Georgian London’ Frere was the guiding force as he vehemently criticized his predecessors for copying ‘Georgian London’ in Mumbai that lacked a truly Anglo-Indian distinctive character. He said,“…architecture in England was at such a low ebb that we could not realize what was essential to the progress of art in India.” Frere demolished the old Fort George situated at the southern tip of Mumbai that was built in 1716 for military purposes. Frere planned for a series of administrative and public buildings in this area and commissioned and associated distinguished British architects; notable among them were George Gilbert Scott, Henry Conybeare, George Molecey, John Fuller and F W Stevens. No doubt, his aim was to enhance the image of the empire and to establish an effective civic administration, construction of new buildings in the Fort area (also called Frere Town) changed the skyline of South Mumbai forever. British Architects visited Mumbai and after studying the local needs designed these buildings. Opening of Suez Canal and newly-established railways in India facilitated transportation of construction materials. Establishment of Sir J J School of Art in 1854 produced trained craftsmen to take Frere’s enterprise forward. The rich traders donated generously for construction of public buildings. No stone unturnedWithin a span of over 30 years, Mumbai had acquired a unique architectural character based on Victorian-Gothic premises with indigenous components. Elements like sculpted balconies, turrets, oval and circular windows were incorporated that suited Indian sensibilities. Stones available locally in different variety like blue and red basalt from Pune, buff-coloured Kurla stone, Vasai sandstone, off-white stone from Porbander were extensively used. Frere’s town covered the southern tip of Mumbai. The plan left large open spaces (esplanade) that still provide lungspace to the densely populated business district by Azad, Oval, Cooperage and Cross Maidans. The prominent buildings in a row around Oval maidan are Old Secretariat, High Court and University Building with the famous Rajabai Tower. Adjacent to this is Central Telegraph Office which earlier housed GPO. Facing it we find the iconic Flora Fountain, a sculptural artefact of highest perfection made in Neo-Classical tradition in 1869. In the vicinity, the Head Quarter of Bombay, Baroda and Central Indian Railway (now Central Railways and Churchgate station) was constructed in 1899. Other remarkable buildings in this area are David Sasoon Library (1873), Chief Presidency Magistrate’s Court (1889), Royal Alfred Sailor’s Home now the HQ of Maharashtra State Police (1876), Elphinstone College (1890) etc. The Neo-Gothic style in Mumbai reached its zenith with the construction of Victoria Terminus (1888) and then of Bombay Municipal Corporation Building (1893);both conceived by F W Stevens. By the time, the design for BMC was being considered, the British government had realized the need to amalgamate Hindu and Mughal architectural elements into their buildings. This stylistic shift was the result of changing colonial policies that started believing in adaptive strategies after 1857 mutiny.The empire, to continue its rule, tried to evoke a sense of familiarity with the past. It led to emulation of architectural elements from Hindu, Jain and Mughal traditions so that empire is no longer perceived as an alien ruler. This change found its expression even in Gothic buildings like Victoria Terminus and BMC HQ and led to emergence of Indo-Saracenic architecture. John Begg, a Scottish Architect, came to Mumbai in 1901 as the Consulting Architect to the government and designed General Post Office (1913). Inspired by the Gol Gumbaj of Bijapur, he designed the central dome of GPO with minarets, cupolas and horseshoe shaped arches. It was a radical break from the predominant architectural style as it contained an unprecedented eclectic and a new syncretic style. After GPO, John Begg and George Wittel designed Prince of Wales Museum (1915). Gateway of India (1922) was another landmark structure in Indo-Saracenic tradition that was built to commemorate the visit of King George V and Queen Mary in 1911. Interestingly, at the time of their arrival a temporary structure was erected hurriedly and today’s Gateway of India was formally inaugurated in 1924. Indo-Saracenic style also paved the way for independent development of various architectural styles derived from Zorastrian, Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Jain traditions as evident from numerous religious structures in Mumbai. No missing the ‘chawl’Apart from these developments, large scale immigration required residential structures. Since migration was community based and space was scarce, it led to a typical residential pattern called chawl which was a two to five storied building with one room accommodation with common toilets.The architecture of these chawls was influenced by the common cultural background of the residents. For example Khotachi Wadi in Girgaum area bears the Portuguese influence as the residents are largely Goan. In 1930s and 40s, the first generation of Indian architects trained in the Western tradition, broke new ground with their modern style based on sleek, symmetrical and geometric patterns using steel, plastic and glass for residential and commercial buildings that resembled to a contemporary style in Miami and New York. It was termed as Art Deco, a unique architectural style that dotted the landscape around Oval maidan and Marine Drive. Many hotels like Ritz, Astoria and West End and theatres such as Metro, Regal and Eros are Art Deco buildings. Besides buildings, a host of artefacts like fountains, statues, memorials and other installations added to the beauty of ever-charming Mumbai. Mumbai thus became an architectural mosaic that contributed in shaping its cosmopolitan and secular character. Post-Independent Mumbai witnessed rapid growth of suburbs and construction of skyscrapers. Closed cotton mills were pulled down for new construction and many buildings of historical significance like Buckley Court and Watson Hotel were demolished or altered to fulfill commercial needs.Fortunately, the citizens of Mumbai did not remain silent spectators. With growing heritage awareness, protests and mass mobilization by activists, professionals, resident associations and NGOs, the state government of Maharashtra passed a legislation in 1995 that enlisted 574 architectural structures (buildings, artefacts, residential clusters, open spaces etc.) and 14 precincts of heritage significance and further categorized them into three grades according to their architectural, historical and cultural importance as well as their period, design and use. The legislation was the first in India to monitor and regulate modifications or alterations with a view to protect them from demolition or rebuilding. Thanks to the conservation awareness among the citizens of Mumbai that many buildings have been restored to their previous glory. Significant among them are Convocation Hall of Mumbai University, Central Telegraph Office and Victoria and Albert Museum, now known as Bhau Daji Lad Museum.Conservation of CST and Elephanta Caves are going on and both are now listed as world heritage sites of UNESCO. Precincts like Kala Ghoda and Banganga have been protected. Annual events such as Heritage Walk and Mumbai Festival have further propagated the heritage awareness. Large scale protest against rebuilding of Opera House and Capitol Theatre have saved these buildings. Conservation plan is on the anvil for many buildings like GPO and Hazi Ali Dargah. The problem faced by the conservation process is that most of the buildings are government owned and the maintenance works over the years have been ad-hoc and incongruous in nature that have further deteriorated the structures. One glaring example is Gateway of India where waterproofing treatment with a synthetic resin adversely affected the stone. Paucity of fund is another constraint. Though new areas are being developed for growing residential and commercial needs, the vested interests comprising the builder-political nexus have been clamoring for redevelopment of heritage structures and precincts. The Heritage Committee is only a recommendatory body and it needs more autonomy and power. The recent controversy is redevelopment plan for Crawford Market (now renamed as Mahtama Jyotiba Phule Market) as the Municipal Corpration has passed a resolution and the government is facing criticism from various quarters.In fact, making Mumbai another Shanghai necessarily does not involve destroying its glorious history. What we need is a concerted conscious effort to deal pragmatically with the conservation of Mumbai’s architectural heritage so that its cultural pluralism and historical legacy are preserved in the context of rapidly changing urban demands.